Take of RE-640 Lip-PLP by activated macrophages in vitro strongly suppresses M1 cytokines TNF-a, IL-6 and IL-12, but stimulates expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. This is in line with a study on activated monocytes by Frankenberger et al., who reported that liposomal methylprednisolone suppressed TNF-a, but stimulated IL-10 production in synergy with LPS activation of human monocytes [26]. Moreover, IL-10 expression was elevated in our in vivo experiments compared ?to naive mice, but was not suppressed by Lip-PLP in vitro. The high IL-10 production could be an important contribution to the antiinflammatory effects of Lip-PLP as IL-10 and glucocorticoids can work synergistically on the suppression of inflammation during experimental arthritis [27]. In vitro uptake of Lip-PLP by M1 macrophages also suppresses the M1 phenotype, as characterized by expression of CD86, and either enhances or maintains expression of M2 genes, thereby skewing these cells into a more M2-like character. This is in line with other studies showing that free glucocorticoids induce M2-like macrophages in human monocytes [12,28]. A recent study by Varga et al. showed that mice treated with corticosteroids induced an anti-inflammatory subset that resembled myeloid derived suppressor cells [12]. Characteristic for M2 macrophages is the expression of CD163, which is a well-recognized marker for antiinflammatory macrophages in humans and mice [12,29]. In the present study, Lip-PLP caused an upregulation of CD163 in bone marrow macrophages which was also found to be upregulated in the synovium at day 1 after treatment of experimental arthritis models ICA and AIA (although not statistically significant in the latter). Therefore, this scavenging receptor provides a valuable read-out to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of glucocorticoids on macrophages in models for inflammatory disease. Lixisenatide site PLPliposome uptake by M1 macrophages stimulated also other mediators of M2 like TGF-b, IL-1RII and Ym1. Corticosteroids have earlier been shown to be potent inducers of IL1RII in mouse primary activated astrocytes [30]. In contrast with our in vitro data, Lip-PLP in vivo mainly downregulated M1 but did not enhance the M2 signature. Also, the effects of Lip-PLP on M1 and M2 signature in vivo in the synovium were less pronounced. An explanation for that may be that Lip-PLP that was exclusively taken up by a thin layer of lining macrophages and not by macrophages lying at a more distantlocation, may induce a more focal induction of M2 only within this lining 
layer. The synovium used for M1/M2 investigation included many macrophages not targeted by liposomes which may dilute the ultimate results for shifting to M2. Earlier studies have shown that synovial macrophages within this thin lining layer drive propagation of synovial inflammation during antigeninduced arthritis. Selective elimination of only lining macrophages by local application of clodronate-containing liposomes in the knee joint during established arthritis almost completely suppressed synovial inflammation within a few days [4]. The lining macrophages form the first layer that meets antigens released from the cartilage or antigens reaching the joint via the blood. The lining cells may control early joint inflammation by upregulating suppressive molecules. During the first week of AIA, M1 markers in the synovium are highly expressed whereas most M2 markers remain low. Interestingly, a strong upregulation of M2 marker.Take of Lip-PLP by activated macrophages in vitro strongly suppresses M1 cytokines TNF-a, IL-6 and IL-12, but stimulates expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. This is in line with a study on activated monocytes by Frankenberger et al., who reported that liposomal methylprednisolone suppressed TNF-a, but stimulated IL-10 production in synergy with LPS activation of human monocytes [26]. Moreover, IL-10 expression was elevated in our in vivo experiments compared ?to naive mice, but was not suppressed by Lip-PLP in vitro. The high IL-10 production could be an important contribution to the antiinflammatory effects of Lip-PLP as IL-10 and glucocorticoids can work synergistically on the suppression of inflammation during experimental arthritis [27]. In vitro uptake of Lip-PLP by M1 macrophages also suppresses the M1 phenotype, as characterized by expression of CD86, and either enhances or maintains expression of M2 genes, thereby skewing these cells into a more M2-like character. This is in line with other studies showing that free glucocorticoids induce M2-like macrophages in human monocytes [12,28]. A recent study by Varga et al. showed that mice treated with corticosteroids induced an anti-inflammatory subset that resembled myeloid derived suppressor cells [12]. Characteristic for M2 macrophages is the expression of 
CD163, which is a well-recognized marker for antiinflammatory macrophages in humans and mice [12,29]. In the present study, Lip-PLP caused an upregulation of CD163 in bone marrow macrophages which was also found to be upregulated in the synovium at day 1 after treatment of experimental arthritis models ICA and AIA (although not statistically significant in the latter). Therefore, this scavenging receptor provides a valuable read-out to determine the anti-inflammatory effect of glucocorticoids on macrophages in models for inflammatory disease. PLPliposome uptake by M1 macrophages stimulated also other mediators of M2 like TGF-b, IL-1RII and Ym1. Corticosteroids have earlier been shown to be potent inducers of IL1RII in mouse primary activated astrocytes [30]. In contrast with our in vitro data, Lip-PLP in vivo mainly downregulated M1 but did not enhance the M2 signature. Also, the effects of Lip-PLP on M1 and M2 signature in vivo in the synovium were less pronounced. An explanation for that may be that Lip-PLP that was exclusively taken up by a thin layer of lining macrophages and not by macrophages lying at a more distantlocation, may induce a more focal induction of M2 only within this lining layer. The synovium used for M1/M2 investigation included many macrophages not targeted by liposomes which may dilute the ultimate results for shifting to M2. Earlier studies have shown that synovial macrophages within this thin lining layer drive propagation of synovial inflammation during antigeninduced arthritis. Selective elimination of only lining macrophages by local application of clodronate-containing liposomes in the knee joint during established arthritis almost completely suppressed synovial inflammation within a few days [4]. The lining macrophages form the first layer that meets antigens released from the cartilage or antigens reaching the joint via the blood. The lining cells may control early joint inflammation by upregulating suppressive molecules. During the first week of AIA, M1 markers in the synovium are highly expressed whereas most M2 markers remain low. Interestingly, a strong upregulation of M2 marker.