On the fact that the CD-associated tissue lesions are driven by multiple and disconnected inflammatory pathways, which are not fully inhibited by Fontolizumab. Indeed, the inflamed gut of CD JW 74 patients is also massively infiltrated with a distinct subset of Th cells, termed Th17 cells, which over-express the transcription factors retinoic acid-related orphan receptor (ROR)-ct and RORa, produce IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and IL-26, and are negatively regulated by IFN-c. [11?4] Even the administration of a neutralizing IL-17A antibody was not effective in CD, thus confirming the complexity of the tissue-damaging immunoinflammatory events in 
CD. [15] Data emerging from recent studies raise the possibility that the mucosal cytokine profile in CD is not stable and may vary with the course of the disease thus contributing to the lack of therapeutic response to cytokine blockers. For example, analysis of T cell-derived cytokines in supernatants of T cell clones derived from intestinal biopsies ofDistinct Cytokine Patterns in CDchildren with CD and stimulated with IL-12 revealed that IFN-c levels were markedly elevated in patients with first attack of CD but not in those with established lesions. [16] Moreover some of the IL-17A-producing cells infiltrating CD tissue co-express IFN-c and can lack IL-17A and be converted into Th1 cells following stimulation with IL-12. [17] In CD, deviation from a Th17 to a Th1 phenotype could be favoured not only by high IL-12 but also defects in TGF-b1 activity due to high Smad7, an intracellular inhibitor of TGF-b1-driven signalling, because TGF-b1 is needed to sustain IL-17A production by Th17 cells [18?1]. Altogether these observations indicate that better understanding of the cytokines 15481974 temporally regulated in CD tissue is needed to identify optimal targets for therapeutic interventions. The aim of this study was to assess whether, in CD, the distribution patterns of cytokines in early lesions (i.e. lesions in the neo-terminal ileum 
of CD patients following a curative ileocolonic resection) differs from that seen in established/late lesions (lesions requiring surgery).Materials and Methods Ethics StatementEach patient who took part in the study gave written informed get 69-25-0 consent and the study was approved by the local ethics committee (Tor Vergata University Hospital, Rome).Patients and SamplesMucosal samples were taken from resection specimens of 9 CD patients [4 male; median age 51 (21?7) years, median disease duration 144 (36?12) months] undergoing resection for a chronically active disease poorly responsive to medical treatment. In all these patients, lesions (herein termed late/established CD) were confined to the terminal ileum. At the time of surgery, all patients were on steroids; 2 of them were taking simultaneously azathioprine, while 4 had received at least 3 infusions of anti TNFa in the previous months. Ileocolonoscopy was performed 6 (n = 5) or 12 (n = 4) months after the intestinal resection for ascertainingFigure 1. CD3 and CD68 positive cells accumulate in the neo-terminal ileum of Crohn’s disease patients. Representative immunofluorescence pictures of ileal sections of 1 CD patient with no evidence of endoscopic recurrence (i0), 1 CD patient with severe endoscopic recurrence (i4), 1 CD patient with established (late) lesion and 1normal control and stained with CD3+/DAPI (A) and CD68+/DAPI (B). Original magnification 100x. Insets in the left images show CD3 positive cells (A) and CD68 positive.On the fact that the CD-associated tissue lesions are driven by multiple and disconnected inflammatory pathways, which are not fully inhibited by Fontolizumab. Indeed, the inflamed gut of CD patients is also massively infiltrated with a distinct subset of Th cells, termed Th17 cells, which over-express the transcription factors retinoic acid-related orphan receptor (ROR)-ct and RORa, produce IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and IL-26, and are negatively regulated by IFN-c. [11?4] Even the administration of a neutralizing IL-17A antibody was not effective in CD, thus confirming the complexity of the tissue-damaging immunoinflammatory events in CD. [15] Data emerging from recent studies raise the possibility that the mucosal cytokine profile in CD is not stable and may vary with the course of the disease thus contributing to the lack of therapeutic response to cytokine blockers. For example, analysis of T cell-derived cytokines in supernatants of T cell clones derived from intestinal biopsies ofDistinct Cytokine Patterns in CDchildren with CD and stimulated with IL-12 revealed that IFN-c levels were markedly elevated in patients with first attack of CD but not in those with established lesions. [16] Moreover some of the IL-17A-producing cells infiltrating CD tissue co-express IFN-c and can lack IL-17A and be converted into Th1 cells following stimulation with IL-12. [17] In CD, deviation from a Th17 to a Th1 phenotype could be favoured not only by high IL-12 but also defects in TGF-b1 activity due to high Smad7, an intracellular inhibitor of TGF-b1-driven signalling, because TGF-b1 is needed to sustain IL-17A production by Th17 cells [18?1]. Altogether these observations indicate that better understanding of the cytokines 15481974 temporally regulated in CD tissue is needed to identify optimal targets for therapeutic interventions. The aim of this study was to assess whether, in CD, the distribution patterns of cytokines in early lesions (i.e. lesions in the neo-terminal ileum of CD patients following a curative ileocolonic resection) differs from that seen in established/late lesions (lesions requiring surgery).Materials and Methods Ethics StatementEach patient who took part in the study gave written informed consent and the study was approved by the local ethics committee (Tor Vergata University Hospital, Rome).Patients and SamplesMucosal samples were taken from resection specimens of 9 CD patients [4 male; median age 51 (21?7) years, median disease duration 144 (36?12) months] undergoing resection for a chronically active disease poorly responsive to medical treatment. In all these patients, lesions (herein termed late/established CD) were confined to the terminal ileum. At the time of surgery, all patients were on steroids; 2 of them were taking simultaneously azathioprine, while 4 had received at least 3 infusions of anti TNFa in the previous months. Ileocolonoscopy was performed 6 (n = 5) or 12 (n = 4) months after the intestinal resection for ascertainingFigure 1. CD3 and CD68 positive cells accumulate in the neo-terminal ileum of Crohn’s disease patients. Representative immunofluorescence pictures of ileal sections of 1 CD patient with no evidence of endoscopic recurrence (i0), 1 CD patient with severe endoscopic recurrence (i4), 1 CD patient with established (late) lesion and 1normal control and stained with CD3+/DAPI (A) and CD68+/DAPI (B). Original magnification 100x. Insets in the left images show CD3 positive cells (A) and CD68 positive.